Draft: 2026-09-30
Work in PROgress.
Arthropods are a group of animals, which have appendages and exoskeletons. They are comprised of different groups or phyla (s. phylum)
When we talk about insects, bugs and entomology, we need to widen our reference to include all the similar organisms, which belong to separate groups, because of key features in their biology, which are inherited from common ancestors. Not all of these organisms interact directly with plants, yet they interact with the soil microbiome, and aquatic plants and the aquatic environment.
Arthropods and plants are hypothesized to share a common ancestor around 1,000,000,000 years ago. According to fossil evidence, around 500,000,000 years ago, arthropods and plants began to diversify. Each generation are the survivors, and inherit new traits or live new mutations.
May 3, 2005. Fir0002, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0.
2. Arizona bark scorpion (Centruroides sculpturatus).
Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, USA. National Park Service (NPS) employee, Wikimedia Commons.
3. Spider mite (Trombidium holosericeum).
Near the Woblitz River by Fürstenberg/Havel, Germany. May 22, 2010. Kurt Kulac, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0.
Peat marshlands of Kawai Nui, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Jan 5, 2002. Eric Guinther (user: Marshman), Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0.
2. Millipede (subphylum Myriapoda). Andreas Brotzer, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0.
Zalné, Netherlands. Feb 5, 2007. Pudding4brains, Wikimedia Commons. [C. alejandroi] Holguín Province, Cuba. Dec 12, 2018. Luis F. de Armas, Tomás M. Rodríguez-Cabrera, ResearchGate, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 4.0.
2. Crawfish (also called Crayfish or Crawdad, superfamilies Astacoidea and Parastacoidea) in muddy agricultural field.
Finca dels Catalans, Sueca, Valencia, Spain. Sept. 28, 2022. 19Tarrestnom65, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0.
Chinese mitten-handed crabs (Eriocheirn sinensis) are an example of an arthropod beneficial, which rice farmers have used to control pest populations as well as produce a secondary income. However, markets for these secondary products may be limited, since bottom-feeders are not considered clean in the 3 major religions of Abraham & Sarah, Islam being one of the most diligent in observance of dietary laws and has fastest growing base.
Many introduced species have become pests, even though they were originally introduced as beneficials. Government regulations prohibit the transfer of organisms even between states or provinces within a country.
1. Entognatha (primitive insects without wings):
Left: Proturan (of Order Protura); Middle: Species of Slender Springtail (Entomobrya nicoleti), Globular Springtail (Dicyrtomina saundersi), Slender Springtail (Orchesella villosa); Right: Two-pronged bristletail (of Order Diplura)
[Protura] Durham, North Carolina, USA. Oct 20, 2004. David R. Maddison (user: Exonie), Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0.
[Springtails] AJC1 (user: Netha), Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 2.0.
[Diplura]. Rentschler Forest Metropark, Fairfield Township, Ohio. Oct 18, 2013. Andrew C (user: Natuur12), Flickr, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 2.0.
2. Insecta orders without wings, the exceptions:
silverfish (of genus Ctenolepisma of Order Zygentoma); lice (Psocoptera), shown human head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis); and fleas (Order Syphonaptera), shown dog flea (Ctenocephalides canis).
[silverfish] Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, Germany. Jun 17, 2007. Fritz Geller-Grimm (user: Dysmachus), Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0.
[lice] Aug 17, 2020. Gilles San Martin (user:GillesSM), Flickr, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 2.0.
[fleas] Jan 12, 2022. Fedaro, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0.
Wasps, bees, ants, & sawflies (Hymenoptera, from υημν [Greek: membrane] and πτερόν [Greek: wing]) can also be organized into 2 or more sub-orders, such as Symphita (sawflies, 250 MYA in fossil record) and Apocrita (waisted wasps: wasps, bees, ants; 200 MYA).
These insects can have wings, or can also exist in wingless stages of life or certain members of their colonies can exist without wings. They are notable for their swarm intelligence. For example, ants farm aphids (Hemiptera) by eating their sugary-watery feces or frass, protecting them from other predators, and changing their behavior. Wasps and bees, like ants and termites, harvest materials from the environment and regurgitate them to create nests, and have complex societies with different castes. Termites feel vibrations and can determine the size of wood they are eating.
[ants] Feb 13, 2019. Don Horne, New Zealand Arthropod Collection (Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research), Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 4.0.
[wasps] East of the town of Vellescot, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, France. Aug 13, 2015. Thomas Bresson. Photo : Thomas Bresson. CC BY 3.0.
[bees] West of the city of Wiesbaden, Germany. Jun 12, 2021. Martin Fisch, Wikimedia Commons. Credits to “marfis75 on flickr”. CC BY 2.0.
[termites] Feb 21, 2005. David McClenaghan, Wikimedia Commons. Attribution: CSIRO. CC BY 3.0.
[house stumps eaten by termites] 1930’s Queenslander house in Brisbane, Australia. Dec 13, 2007. Lady alys, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0.
Wikimedia Commons [].
Flies (Diptera, from δι [Greek: two] and πτερόν [Greek: wing]) are more numerous and just as important pollinators as bees. They range in sizes, colors, and lifestyle habits. They have a larval stage, and begin their life as maggots. Although flies are supposed to have two wings, many flies have smaller set of wings called halteres, which are used to stabilize their flight. Some flies mimic bee colors to appear more dangerous, yet they have sucking mouthparts and other features typical of the insect order Diptera.
Flies can be just as dangerous as bees, since they can bite (ex: horseflies) or suck blood (ex: mosquitos), which spreads blood-borne diseases, and can lay eggs inside skin of living animals (ex: bot-flies). For this reason, gardeners must have protective clothing to prevent exposure to harmful insects and also to avoid skin absorption of harmful pesticides.
[halteres] Cranefly (Tipulidae). Nono64, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 3.0. GNU Free Documentation License.
[bee mimic] Oct 2, 2010. Sjonnoh, Wikimedia Commons.
Wikimedia Commons [].
Beetles (Coleoptera, from κολεός [Greek: sheath, cover] and πτερόν [Greek: wing]) can be important pollinators, some of the largest insects in the environment, an important part of the ecological web, and a pest for plant cultivators.
1. Rose chafer (Cetonia aurata) is a beetle originally from Europe, which can damage the leaves of ornamental plants like roses (Rosa spp.), even though many garden roses were imported from other parts of the world. The damage caused by these herbivores is called skeletonization, since they eat the tissues between the leaf veins. They can exist as grub larvae in the soil or flying adult beetles, and are eaten by birds. The transportation of plants can inadvertently introduce pest insects to new regions. There exists other species of beetles with the same common name.
2. Locust Borer (Megacyllene robiniae) is a beetle from North America, which can damage urban trees like black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). The larvae live and eat the wood of the tree. The adults feed on pollen of goldenrod (Solidago spp.) and pollinate them. Because black locust wood is valuable to humans, the damage caused by the larvae nests is measured economically.
3. Chilean stag beetle (Chiasognathus grantii) is one of the largest beetles on Earth. Males have oversized mandibles 2 to 3 times greater than its body size, an example of sexual dimorphism studied and published by Charles Darwin in 1871. Chilean stag beetles live in the austral forests of southern beech (Nothofagus spp.). Ecologists observe how this species helps the soil ecosystem by eating certain roots and defecating nutrients, which feed bacteria that benefit mycorrhizal fungi.
Wikimedia Commons [].
2. The Wheel Bug (Arilus cristatus) is one of the predators of adult Locust borers (M. robiniae). Their common name comes from the wheel-like armor on their back. They puncture insects smaller than them with their venomous fang. For humans, their sting is more painful than a wasp sting, and causes a severe skin reaction.
3. When beetles like the Chilean stag beetle (C. grantii) defecate, they contribute nutrients and microorganisms to the soil microbiome. EMS photograph of bacteria and fungi on the root tip of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica) tree, an example of the rhizosphere microbiome.
Wikimedia Commons [].
Arthropods of different relative sizes (red: medium, big; blue: small), which eat forest detritus or are saprophagous, contribute to the resource base of bacteria and fungi in the soil microbiome.
Adapted from Ruiz, N. Lavelle, P. Jimenéz, J. (2008).
Originally from Wardle (2002).
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN).
Economy and ecology are related concepts []. They are different methods to measure the same thing. However, economic analysis focuses mostly on the ecological relationships between humans and the environment.The value derived from nature (ex: Black locust wood) originates from complex systems, which depend on networks of interrelated organisms and specific time frames.
Sustainable management focuses on the ecological impacts of economically justified decisions (ex: pesticide application to avoid crop loss). The value lost due to pests (Vp) can be less than the value lost due to consequential technologies (Vt). This means the technology used to avoid damage can be more harmful and contributes to more loss. Sustainability can sustain the economy.
Theoretical exercise
Vp = Damages / final value
Vt = Final value / Historical value output OR Final value / Optimal value output OR Final value / Projected value outputif Vp < Vt , then management strategy is worse than sustainable alternative.
2. Wild cats like bobcats (Lynx rufus) might be the next largest predator, which can control populations of woodpeckers and other species, which create nests in trees, such as squirrels (family Scuridae) and ducks (bird family Anatidae). Depredation by apex predators may affect pest populations.
Quebec, Canada.
3. Wild cats like bobcats (L. rufus) have large range, and can climb both coniferous and deciduous trees.
southeastern California, USA.
Wikimedia Commons [].
Black Locust tree (Robinia pseudoacacia) [green] is valued for its rot resistant wood, which is why settlers in the USA planted it near property borders, and used it for fences.
Locust Borer (Megacyllene robiniae) [yellow] is an insect, flower pollinator, and boring pest of R. pseudoacacia. Locust borers are more likely to disqualify segments of wood from commercial use, than kill any trees in cultivation.
Woodpeckers (bird family Picidae) [red] are a type of bird, which could also bore into R. pseudoacacia wood. Although woodpeckers feed on Locust Borers and could potentially lower pest populations, they also disqualify segments of wood from commercial use.
Bobcats (Lynx rufus) [orange] are predators of woodpeckers, which would hunt them and lower the amount of damage they could cause. However, the survivor woodpeckers could consume some of the Locust Borers.
This scenario is an example of how ecological networks influence economic outcomes. An economist would use this data to model nature’s relationships to understand the most optimal business practices.
Land management practices allow places for creatures to thrive without human competition.
Protected natural spaces not only help wild communities of different creatures, they are valued by humans. For example, humans visit National Parks and pay fees to support the employees. Visitors can gain a once of a lifetime experience, and health benefits.
Urban environments can be detrimental for human health. Urban forest and a managed ecosystem can contribute to better health and higher function.
Often, the wealthiest and most educated members of our society live near forests and other wild preserved ecosystems. This is an indicator of their true value.
However, there are insects, which can contribute to health issues. Protective clothing, awareness, and knowledgeable habits are important resources to live near wild environment without the natural consequences or consequences from protective technologies (ex: skin exposure to pesticides like mosquito repellents).
Credit: Alchemist-hp, Mehdi (CC 3.0)
This method requires the photographer to wear protective clothing, which doesn’t attract insects (ex: kakhi Carhartt brand long-sleeve clothing vs. white flower color). This method was used on Hydrangea paniculata and in Madison, Wisconsin. Species and climate can affect insect aggressiveness, and photographer safety.
Passive methods of scientific research, like the capture of light or photographic data, without any spectral emissions, are one way scientists can leave a smaller footprint on their environment and obtain accurate data of insect behavior.
Credit: AlbertGy, Wikimedia Commons, (CC BY 4.0)
כל שרץ העוף ההלך על ארבע שקץ הוא לכם ס
אך את זה תאכלו מכל שרץ העוף ההלך על ארבע אשר לא לו כרעים ממעל לרגליו לנתר בהן על הארץ
את אלה מהם תאכלו את הארבה למינו ואת הסלעם למינהו ואת החרגל למינהו ואת החגב למינהו
וכל שרץ העוף אשר לו ארבע רגלים שקץ הוא לכם
ולאלה תטמאו כל הנגע בנבלתם יטמא עד הערב
וכל הנשא מנבלתם יכבס בגדיו וטמא עד הערב
Matthew 3:4 (BibleHub DOT com, BibliaTodo DOT com)
Αὐτὸς δὲ ὁ Ἰωάννης εἶχεν τὸ ἔνδυμα αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ τριχῶν καμήλου καὶ ζώνην δερματίνην περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν αὐτοῦ ἡ δὲ τροφὴ αὐτοῦ ἦν ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον
Mark 1:6
ἦν δὲ Ἰωάννης ἐνδεδυμένος τρίχας καμήλου καὶ ζώνην δερματίνην περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐσθίων ἀκρίδας καὶ μέλι ἄγριον
Surah Al-A’raf 7 Ayah 157 (Islamicity DOT org, MyIslam DOT org)
الذين يتبعون الرسول لنب الامى الذى يجدونه مكتوبا عندهم فى التورىة والا نجبيل يامرهم بالمعروف وينهىهم عن المنكر ويحل لهم الطيبت ويحرم عليهم الخبىث ويضع عنهم اصرهم والاغلل التي كانت عليهم فالذين ءامنوا به وعزروه ونصروه واتبعوا النور الذى انزل معه أولـىك هم المفلحون
Sunan ibn Majah 3218 (Sunnah DOT com)
حدثنا أبو مصعب، حدثنا عبد الرحمن بن زود بن اسلم، عن ابيه، عن عبد الله بن عمر، ان رسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسل – قال ” احلت لنا ميتتان لحوت والجراد”.
Red locust, Nomadacris septemfasciata
Kruger, South Africa
Bernard DuPont
Ice crawler, Grylloblatta campodeiformis campodeiformis
Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada
Shane Johnson
Map 1. The Journey North begins in southern California and central Mexico. Monarch butterflies fly over the Caribbean into Florida.
Map 3. 1st generation dies in the end of April, reaching its goal. The 2nd generation goes on to fly northwards during summer months. As far north as eastern Canada.
Map 6. In September, the 3rd generation of monarch butterflies go south in 1 trip. How do they know where to go if only their ancestors flew there?
Wikimedia Commons
Harald Süpfle
Species said to be non-migratory, overwinters or hibernates as pupae.
Left: Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada.
Simon Pierre Barrette, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0.
Right: Distribution map of Papilio canadensis.
IvanTortuga, Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.
Greenhouse beneficial predator insects eat aphid pests.
Left: Larva of Chrysoperla rufilabris.
Rock Creek Park, Washington D.C., USA
Katja Schulz, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY 2.0.
Right: Adult or imago of unidentified species
Mexico City, MX.
Carlos Valenzuela Montuy, Wikimedia Commons. CC BY-SA 4.0.
We often hear about insect pests, yet some insects are considered beneficials. Beneficials often are predatory insects, which eat other insect pests. Green lacewing larvae with their ferocious mandibles consume around 200 to 300 aphids (Family Aphipidae), piercing-sucking pests which can colonize greenhouse crops and can spread diseases []. However, Green Lacewing adults only consume pollen and nectar from flowers.
Apiculture is attested in the archeological record as far as Ancient Egypt or Kemet. The honeybee glyph was the symbol, which unified Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The distances which arthropods migrate unite separate countries. Honeybees today are transported by beekeepers within large organizations, which service farms around the USA with flower pollination. The living conditions of transported honeybees is one factor, which contributes to Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), a phenomenon with a myriad of causal agents.
Honey is one example of a product derived directly from arthropods. It has been prized since ancient times for its unique properties. Silk is another product derived directly from arthropods. Silk worm (Bombyx mori), which feed on the leaves of the Mulberry tree (genus Morus), produces webs of fiber, similar to spiders, yet around its cocoon. The Silk worm cocoon can be harvested, processed, unraveled, and spun again to produce textiles with unique glossy thin appearance and smooth texture. Because of the sensuality of such fabrics, there have formed social norms of when or if it is acceptable to use them.
Insects and plant diseases
Insect vectors
Corn flea beetle -> Stewart’s wilt of corn
Striped cucumber beetle -> Bacterial wilt off cucurbits
Elm bark beetle -> Dutch elm disease
Aphids -> potato virus Y
Leafhoppers & planthoppers -> grassy stunt virus, phytophlasmas, phloem-limited fastidious bacteria
Whiteflies -> tomato yellow leaf curl geminivirus (pp.44-45)
Beneficials
Green lacewing
– larvae consume 200-300 aphids during lifecycle
– adults only consume pollen and nectar
Great migrations
Donaus plexippus (Monarch Butterfly)
Swallowtails
– Black Swallowtail
– Eastern Tiger Swallowtail
– Canadian Tiger Swallowtail
– Pipevine Swallowtail
– Zebra Swallowtail
– Spicebush Swallowtail
– Giant Swallowtail
Entomology
Arthropods
Crustaceans in agriculture
Crabs used as pest control in rice fields
Roly-pollies
Habitats
Signs of life, chemical/microbial indicators
Insects
Pollinators
Wild
Diptera
Lepidoptera
Large migrations
Apidae
Honey bees vs. native bees
Cultivated
Apis mellifera
Most common
Trafficked
Health issues due to handling and disease
Diseases
Multi-faceted
Pesticides
Plant diversity
Handling
Diagnosis
Colony collapse disorder
Bombus impatiens
Indoor strawberry
Behavior
House flies
Rate of reproduction
Beneficials/Predators
Vespidae and other wasps
Predation
Larval, adult stage
Parasitism
Host range
References
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Agent: Bacterium, Melissococcus plutonius
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