Elements

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Featured image: Measurement tape hanging over a forest’s soil profile near Stepanovka, Tomsk Region, Russia. The top layers show vegetation and soil rich in organic matter. Each square with an X represents each soil horizon classification.

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“We [all humans] are also indigenous to the Earth. We are made of the elements of the Earth.”

Reginaldo Haslett-Marroquin, “Indigenousness”. Nov 9, 2022. YouTube. Accessed Feb 15, 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WgTwiZL6ZGY

“Chemicals can be dangerous. […] They can […] damage trees and other plants. Chemicals can also harm the health of human beings.”

ChemHAT (Chemical Hazard and Alternatives Toolbox) []

“[…] It is possible to rehabilitate large scale ecosystems.”

Liu, John D. “Ecosystem restoration China – John D. Liu”. Sept 1, 2013. YouTube. Accessed Feb 15, 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8WMMxvrlftA

The Universe

Where did the elements come from? How did atoms and molecules form into being? The answers to these fundamental questions lie in the origins of the universe. How did we figure it out?

Stargazing is nothing new. Humans around the world looked up at the night sky and made profound discoveries, some only with the human eye. Archeoastronomic evidence shows ancient people, as far back as 3000 BC, built their cities oriented towards to the seasonal positions of celestial objects.

In the early 1600s AD, Galileo improved Lippershey’s perspicillium and gave it to the City of Venice, then owner of the University of Padua, to monitor the Mediterranean Sea for raider ships [1]. In his spare time, he looked up towards the moon and the planets. The competition between maritime cultures created the conditions for long-distance observation technology to develop, which would later be used to discover the secrets of the Universe.

In the 1930s, scientists interested in radio and signals technology observed radio emissions from space. By 1937, the first antennae to observe the cosmos is built, a radio telescope [2][3][4]. When the speed of light had been taken into account, these observations suggested the universe has expanded for billions of years (1,000,000,000). The reversal of this trend suggests the universe was once highly compacted. Because of the behavior of atoms, discovered through scientific experimentation of radioactive materials, the universe is hypothesized to have started from an unimaginably dense single point. The supporting evidence and hypothesis is called the Big Bang theory.

For the last 10,000 years (Neolithic), humans observed nature and told allegories to explain reality. Institutions were created to worship these observations and other myths, accruing prestige and resources, which, for some, created confusion about the singularity of reality, what forces controlled it, and where it came from. Creation narratives passed down each generation orally, and were preserved. Some ideas have been violently enforced, or used to encourage sanctioned violence. From the social conflicts of this era arose one of the most influential creation narratives: a world created in 7 discrete time periods by a singular omnipotent force [5]. Again, today, we also observe nature and attempt a more systematic approach to evaluate it. In addition to the advantages of the scientific method, people today have the freedom to live close to ancient texts, their faith, and wisdom.

Based on mathematical calculations and other methods, scientists can determine the age of the universe: 13,800,000,000 (13.8 billion) years old [6] . Other calculations and observations suggest the universe is older than this. Scientists hypothesize the universe was so hot and dense, atoms could not form [7].

Comparable to the formation of planets, as the universe cooled, particles began to form. Hydrogen (H), an atom typically with a nucleus of a single neutron and a single proton, formed when an electron (e^–) orbits stably. After the first atoms formed, photons could emit after the change of the electron position around the nucleus. More elements would be created in the intense heat and density of the universe through a process called fusion, the opposite of fission.

Scientists have been studying stars as long as they have been able to. Miraculously enough, our star, the Sun, is located at almost the perfect distance between the Moon and the Earth for it to be completely occulted during a lunar eclipse. This feature allowed astronomers to observe the surface of the Sun and determine it was unlike a planet, but a fiery gaseous object with frequent energetic emissions [8].

Fusion and fission also occur in stars. The synthesis of new atomic nuclei from universal and stellar processes created the conditions for new atoms to form [11]. When atoms bond together they form molecules (ex: CO₂, H₂O, HCl, NH₄, etc…). Some of the smaller atoms do not sustainably exist alone and form diatomic molecules (ex: H₂, N₂, O₂, etc…).

Around the universe, the life and death of stars created new elements, which formed into cooler denser objects. In our solar system, 3 of the 8 planets have hard or viscous composition. These materials are heated by the Sun’s radiation. The Earth, due to a hypothesized collision with another planet, has a larger molten core, in relation to its overall mass, than any other planet. This molten core rich in Iron (Fe) generates a magnetic field, which protects our planet from most of the emissions of the Sun, allowing life to thrive.

Earth

Of the many unique characteristics of our planet, one key feature distinguishes it: water (H₂O). Water is a molecule composed of three bonded atoms, two H atoms and one Oxygen atom. This simple configuration gives it unique characteristics, which help it cling to one another and carry a charge when mixed with other ionic molecules. The heat capacity of water allowed our planet to cool by absorbing heat energy after periods of cooling and heating of our planet due to volcanic eruptions. Together with the gravitational pull of the moon, water eroded the surface of our planet and formed soils.

The soil’s parent material is the bedrock, which is weathered and transported by wind, water, and tectonic movements to form soil. The process is so old, some of our soils today are formed from the parent material created by compressed eroded parent material. Sedimentary rocks compress weathered materials into new parent material. Sand in the ancient oceans was compressed into sandstone, which later was eroded into the soil layer above it. Limestone is also formed in a similar process but made stronger by the bonds of Calcium.

Ancient oceans were filled with dissolved minerals, precipitated minerals and broken down minerals in sand. Some of these materials come from weathered crystals like quartz formed slowly in extreme temperatures.

Because of plate tectonics, masses of land move and shift. The bottom of these oceans and their weathered materials have been lifted up and are now the bedrock of new soils, and other more recent weathered materials.

Not only has water influenced the soils of our planet, but also fire. Combustion is a unique chemical reaction. In order for fire to occur, there needs to be enough Oxygen (O₂) and enough fuel. Because of the chemistry of carbon-based lifeforms, plants and other organisms are the fuel source and also contributed to high oxygen-levels of our atmosphere. Without life, there would be no fire.

Fires occur naturally, and many species are dependent on fire to destroy competition, to open cones, or to encourage lush regrowth for grazing animals to eat. Despite this, fire is destructive and threatens life on Earth. Humans can create fire and developed many combustion machines, yet we still struggle to control wildfires.

As land use changes evapotranspiration patterns, increased CO₂ changes global temperatures, activities near forests continue, conflict between people occur, and since historic peoples have been genocided and replaced, forest fires and other wildfires have become a significant threat to population centers. In recent years, smoke plumes have suffocated cities far away and fires have caused loss of human life.

Chemistry

Far into the archeological record there’s evidence phytochemicals dyes used by humans. Humans around the world harvested soils and processed clay, harvested ore and smelted metal. Humans also used paints, adhesives, and oils. These substances came from minerals, plants, or animals.

Our ability to manage and transform materials amazes ourselves. People believed they could magically transform common metals into gold. What began as an informal learning process became infused with superstition. Modern chemistry distinguishes itself from these superstitions by adhering to the scientific method, which focuses solely on the demonstrable and repeatable.

Chemistry, the modern science, structures and classifies materials [22][23]. These advancements allow us to look up at the skies with more certainty about the behavior of electromagnetic wavelengths and the creation of new elements. It is the reason why we can describe plant life in terms of elements, atoms, molecules and reactions.

Chemists divide organic chemistry, chemical reactions inside living organisms, from non-organic chemistry, chemical reactions between non-living materials. However, non-living materials like Lead (Pb), Iron (Fe), and Nickel (Ni) interact with organisms in destructive ways.

Early observations, philosophical thoughts, and experiments have led to us create and manage our world. Because we know everything is made out of atoms, it looks like it only created the problem of new dangerous substances, but now we can also study the natural dangers that existed before humans.

Inside atoms are neutrons, protons, and electrons. Atoms in the periodic table are sorted by their atomic number or number of protons in nucleus, which correlates to its atomic weight. When ordered by this characteristic, they change periodically (same repeating pattern) in their atomic radius, which measures half the diameter of the nucleus, and correlates with the amount of electrons they can hold.

The reason why some atoms are more reactive than others are because electrons exist in pairs. When a neutral atom has an odd atomic number (number of protons = number of electrons, unless it is an ion), the atom wants to bond to other atoms to pair their electrons. When a lone pair exists, it changes the geometry of a molecule and any emergent crystal or amorphous structures. Ions are atoms with a positive or negative charge thanks to less or more electrons than the number of protons.

Molecules are bonded atoms. The word, chemical, is an ambiguous term used for any unique substance created from the reactions of atoms and molecules [26]. We tend to associate the word ‘chemical’ with synthetic or anthropogenic substances (created by humans) or dangerous substances, yet water and other common substances can also be considered chemicals.

Applied Chemistry

As the methods improve to detect and survey the chemical composition of plants, their nutritional value, or their contaminants, thresholds change. Before, substances used to be measure in ppm (parts per million) and then increased to ppb (parts per billion). If we have the ability to find the smaller and smaller traces of chemicals, at what point do we decide what is significant and what is not? How can we make chemical analysis meaningful to our needs? Scientists conduct research to determine when the presence of a chemical is relevant and when it is not.

The Elements

The elements of the universe are a long list [30][31][32]. In the plant sciences, only a limited series is important. Thankfully, the Earth is abundant in the right kind of elements for life to thrive.

Hydrogen

At the temperature and pressures of Earth’s surface, elemental or pure Hydrogen (H) commonly exists as a gas. People used to think all gases were the same. During the times of Greeks and in many other cultures, the four primary elements were: air, fire, earth, and water. Today these are called the Aristotelian elements and all related studies Aristotelian physics. Scientists like Antoine Lavoisier, among many others, discovered there were different types of gases, not just air. When he produced hydrogen, he could light it on fire and produce water. He suggested the name ‘hydrogen’, which means ‘water producing’ in Greek []. Hydrogen atoms are not only found as gases but inside the molecules of many other substances.

Hydrogen plays a crucial role in biochemistry. In many ways, it is a conduit for electro-chemical activity, because of how easy it is for molecules of greater polarity to break the bonds of Hydrogen to other atoms. However, the bonds between Hydrogen atoms are so strong for their size, they also contribute to the behavior of liquids and chemical reactions.

Hydrocarbons like ethanol are created from the fermentation of plant material. These molecules have been important, because they are mixed with less abundant hydrocarbons used as fuel sources for combustion engines in cars and planes.

Carbon

The element name for Carbon (C) comes from the Greek word for charcoal. Charcoal has been produced since ancient times by burning wood under a covered pit or structure, so the wood doesn’t burn all the way. Charcoal is easier to burn and burns hotter than normal wood. Antoine Lavoisier proved diamonds were made of the same element as charcoal by measuring the weight of diamonds and Carbon dioxide gas (CO₂) in various heating experiments. According to our current understanding of life on Earth, there are no living organisms without Carbon atoms in their molecular structures.

Carbon is one of the most important elements for plant life [36][37]. Today we often associated Carbon with the rapid production of Carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the combustion of fossil fuels and their consequences on the global climate. Yet, Carbon plays an essential role for plants.

As a seed, organic molecules with Carbon skeletal structures like carbohydrates (sugars) and hydrocarbons (lipids) store enough Carbon for the plant to create its body as it establishes its first leaves and roots. Once the leaves are established, the stoma expel some water and intake CO₂. This CO₂ becomes the primary source of Carbon utilized in photosynthesis, which metabolizes a CO₂ gas molecule into a carbon chain molecule, then into a sugar.

Not all plants manage this Carbon resource the same way. Botanists have recognized three major groups of plants based on their metabolic pathways, which specialize in conserving the carbon molecules, before they re-oxidize and return to the atmosphere as CO₂. These metabolic pathways are C3 (3 carbon chain intermediary molecule), C4 (4 carbon chain intermediary molecule) and CAM (Crassulacean [Cacti, etc..] Acid Metabolysis) [38][39][40].

Not only do these photosynthesis pathway groups represent metabolic differences, but also physiological differences. For example, C4 plant leaves have structures around their vascular tissues called bundle sheath cells. Within these groups, there are also more in-depth distinctions. In all, Carbon metabolism is a complex process, which plants have adapted to do more creatively than many other organisms.

Scientists have been observing the greening of forest leaves due to the greater availability of CO₂ in our atmosphere. While this may sound like CO₂ is not bad, it contributes to excessive warming of our planet. Together with the land use changes, the warming of the atmosphere by trapped solar heat radiation causes water to evaporate and plants to stress, which causes desertification. This affects the climates of many regions since they rely on evapotranspiration from plants, and other wind and ocean currents [42].

Carbon is so important to the structure of plants, paleobotanists and archeologists can determine a plant species from the structure of charcoal (woody plants burnt by humans in oxygen deprived conditions) found in ancient remains. Paleobotanists and archeologists also can study much older fossils of plants in coal (compressed swampy plants and other biota). This is how scientists study plant evolution and morphology. By comparing carbon structures in these inert materials, scientists can compare changes in the morphology of plants and determine how leaves, vascular tissues, spores and species diversity changed over million of years, a countless number of generations.

Oxygen

The elemental form of Oxygen (O) in the temperatures and pressures of the surface of the Earth is a gas. Scientists proved Oxygen is involved in the reactions which cause fire (combustion) and those which cause rust (oxidation). Early chemists knew both rust and fire were similar chemical reactions, but thought it was produced by a hypothetical element called Phlogiston, which was never discovered and later disproved.

Because we and all the other animals need oxygen to breathe, we tend to portray Oxygen as a good element. Yet, chemicals aren’t good or bad. They are reactive or unreactive. Some reactions can be bad for certain system functions, and some can be good for system functions. Oxygen is needed to carry out important reactions in our bodies. Many reactions in plants need Oxygen as well. Yet, if plants have too much Oxygen, destructive reactions can occur and will cause the plants to accumulate harmful metabolites it can’t properly metabolize.

Because Oxygen is so reactive, it likes to bond with Hydrogen. These bonds are so strong, it takes energy for us to break them manually with an electrical current. Many countries are experimenting with transforming the force of wind to generate an electric current and break water molecules (H₂O) into a storable Hydrogen gas fuel through the process of electrolysis.

Plants also break the bonds between Hydrogen and Oxygen in water when they photosynthesize. Plants use the Hydrogen atoms from water and the Oxygen atoms from metabolized CO₂ to create sugars [C_a(H₂O)_b]. The unbroken molecules of water are evapotranspirated. The Oxygen atoms from water become the diatomic Oxygen gas (O₂) we breathe.

Water is the most important molecule for plant life, and the reason why Oxygen is so important. Water is a polar molecule and has some curious electromagnetic properties. It is the most abundant liquid at ambient temperature and is therefore the medium for which all nutrients are delivered throughout the bodies of not only plants, but all other animals.

Curiously, the English word ‘Soul’ shares a common root with the German word ‘die Seele’, which also means soul, but is known to derive from the words ‘die/der See’, which traditionally is translated into English as ‘a lake’ or ‘a body of water’. Wolf-Dieter Storl, a contemporary German naturalist, recounts this and observes how plants have souls, even though they are not as animated as those of animals.

Nutrients

Of all the elements, there are three top limiting nutrients, which are considered the macronutrients of plants: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K).

A macronutrient is an element, usually found in a functional molecular form, which is required by a plant at greater quantities [45]. If there isn’t enough of the limiting nutrients, then the plant can’t grow and incorporate the other nutrients. In contrast, micronutrients are elements which are required at quantities and/or rates, which are easily met.

Cultivation & Soils

In any system of cultivation, when nutrients are introduced to encourage growth or another plant function, they are often called fertilizers. Fertilizers and all the other added substances are called inputs.

Usually, plants are able to find micronutrients in outdoor environments. In indoor environments like greenhouses, cultivators find it easier to use soil-less media (ex: Spagnum moss) instead of the pathogen or pest filled soils (ex: insects, fungi, bacteria). Sometimes, people will pasteurize soils by heating them (160°F or 71°C) and killing any germs [53]. Many prefer soil-less media because it less heavy and drains easily, which makes it easier to avoid soil compaction, overwatering, and root rot.

The top ingredient in soil-less media, Sphagnum moss, is criticized because it is harvested from ancient sensitive ecosystems, where it doesn’t grow fast enough to replace. Plant breeders are researching how to cultivate Sphagnum moss.

Sphagnum moss lacks macro- and micronutrients. Within indoor cultivation systems, micronutrient profiles are important to consider if a high-quality healthy product is desired. Growing guides provide research-based advice on what quantities of micronutrients are needed for each crop. Independent empirical research could determine if growing guides are influenced by economical industry expectations.

Plant nutrients aren’t only in soils. Plant microbiome plays a role in distributing nutrients throughout various organs in the plant, besides the roots. Nutrient allocation is important to cultivation. Some growers will spray fruit with Calcium (Ca) fertilizers to ensure the nutrient travels to the fruit before it goes to new vegetative growth, since Ca-deficiencies in the fruit correlate with pest damage.

The top three macronutrients of plants are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). This trio is often referred to as NPK. Fertilizers, organic or synthetic, are measured by an NPK ratio. The NPK ratio (N:P:K) represents the percent of the weight available nutrient (molecular weight) within the weight of the fertilizer product, except for N. Nitrogen is measured by percent of elemental weight (atomic mass) within weight of the fertilizer product.

Fertilizers, organic and synthetic, but moreso synthetic because of the concentration of nutrient, are capable of damaging plants by changing the molarity (concentration of solutes in a solution) of water in the soil. If the molarity of soil matrix water is higher than the plant, the water in the roots moves to the soil because of osmosis. Plants do not suck up the water from the soil, but instead use osmotic chemistry of the soil and root tissues to encourage water molecules to bind to the solutes within the root cells. Membranes allow the passage of water between root cells and soil. If the chemistry of the soil changes, it can cause the osmosis to reverse.  If molarity affects osmotic behavior, it is measured as osmolarity.

Primary Macronutrients

Nitrogen

Add one proton to a C atom, and you’ll get an isotope of Nitrogen (N). Nitrogen is the most abundant element in our atmosphere, as the diatomic molecule N₂. Nitrogen is one of the most important elements for plant growth, because of its existence in every protein molecule and because of the scarcity of mineralized Nitrogen, like Nitrates (NO₃^–) in soils. Organic Nitrogen-containing molecules like Ammonia (NH₃) are much more common.

Phosphorus

The elemental form of Phosphorus (P) was discovered when chemists boiled urine until all the liquids evaporated. The residue ignited and burnt brightly, thus the element was named φωσφόρος (fosforos, light-bearer), an ancient Greek word from φῶς (fos, light) and φέρω (fero, carry).

Although less P is needed compared to N, it plays a crucial role in the formation of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy carrying molecule in biomolecular reactions. For this reason, it is essential in the fundamental cellular processes like DNA formation, among others. It plays a role in how plants manage abiotic stresses like drought [63].

Unlike N, P binds easily to other minerals in the soil matrix and can become unavailable. P in organic sources like urine must be diluted in water to avoid salt damage. Excessive P from artificial fertilizers, erosion, and other sources drain into and change aquatic environments by promoting algal growth. If algae become over-abundant, they die and decompose, they consume Oxygen in the water and suffocate fish, aquatic plants and other organisms, which need it for respiration. This process is called eutrophication.

Potassium

Potassium (K) is the tricky one to remember since it is K, which stands for Kalium, from German and the out-dated English word kali, which comes from the Arabic word al-Quali ﴾القلي﴿, which means potash.

Potash has been known for thousands of years and was discovered when someone boiled the ashes from burnt wood in a pot and collected the residue [65][66]. Potash was documented by the Sumerians in ~1800BC. It is one of the oldest ingredients of soap. The elemental form was discovered when alchemists separated earths, as they had separated water into Hydrogen and Oxygen using electrolysis. Separating Potash, they produced Potassium metal with exothermic reactions when placed in water (See here).

Today, potash refers to all Potassium salts used in fertilizers, thus potash mines are places where minerals with K are extracted from the Earth and processed.

Potassium plays an important role in facilitating enzymatic activity in plant physiological processes like photosynthesis, stomatal regulation and wood formation [67][68]. It is found in many minerals, like glauconite, yet it takes a longer than expected to leach into the soil and become available. For these two reasons, K is a limiting nutrient and options for K fertilization is limited by release time [69][70].

Secondary Macronutrients

Magnesium

Magnesium is found within all living organisms due to its electrical charge and size, which control the behavior of the major energy transporter molecules: ATP and ADP. It is very important to the function of cells [72]. Magnesium inside cells is found as a cation, Mg²⁺ . It bonds with other anions ( ^– ), negatively charged atoms. These conditions occur when both atoms have more or less electrons than protons.

Calcium

Dr. Jiwan Palta said it succinctly, “Calcium is nature’s strength.” Calcium is in shells of land and sea creatures, and in the bones of animals.

Calcium oxylate crystals form within the tissues of some plants like the Swiss Cheese plant (Monstera deliciosa) can damage the inside of your mouth and gut. Calcium carbonate is another chemical found in many kinds of limestone bedrocks, and also in chalk.

Calcium is also important in metabolism of all living organisms [75][76][77]. The charge of Ca²⁺ ions and its size, in comparison to Mg²⁺ or Zn²⁺ or Cd²⁺ ions, allow it to interact with oxygen donating molecule groups like alcohols (see here) and others [78]. For this reason, Calcium plays a role in the biosynthesis of lignin, among many other organic molecules. Lignin is the molecule around the cell wall, which gives wood its strength. Studies of Poplar trees (Populus sp.) and their response to calcium-availability show it can affect the strength and quality of wood [79].

Sulfur

Sulfur (S) plays a role in the metabolism of plants [80]. Many of the qualities we associate with onions (Allium cepa) and other Alliums with strong odors are because of Sulfur containing secondary metabolites.

When you cut an onion, a sulfur containing compound is evaporated into the air and reacts with the water in your eyes to produce sulfuric acids at low concentrations, which cause them to irritate and make us cry. Workers in kitchens that cut onions frequently are advised to wear protective eye gear to prevent eye damage. Plant breeders are interested in breeding onions with less of these compounds to protect workers. Irwin Goldman is one breeder who researched the medicinal role of these compounds and their positive effect on heart health.

In the past, flowers of sulfur was a powdered Sulfur and common pesticide used to fight fungal diseases. This dust was applied to plants. Sulfur smells like rotten eggs. Think of how smelly that would’ve been!

Micronutrients

Iron

Iron (Fe) has been smelted from ore and made into metal tools by humans around the world [81]. Metal iron forms rust when Iron oxidizes. Iron oxides, like Fe(OH)₃, have a red color. Soils with iron will oxidize more around the tropics, where soils experience more weathering through heat and rain.

In mammals, but not insects, it constitutes a part of oxygen-carrying organic molecules like hemoglobin in blood. For plants, Iron plays a role in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll, a green pigment molecule used in photosynthesis.

When prepared in fertilizers, Iron is prepared into a powder with other complex molecules which prevent oxidation from occurring before the Iron reaches the plant. These molecules are known as chelators (kee-late-ors), and the mixed product as chelated iron or iron chelate.

Copper

Copper (Cu) is used in electrical wires and the electronic devices we use to plan our gardens, communicate, and learn. Copper, although it is a micronutrient, plays a significant role in horticulture, because of its chemical properties [82][83].

Copper is toxic to microorganisms. Plants have some ways to mitigate copper toxicity. Because copper is lethally toxic to microbes, it is used in fungicides. It is also present in the ionic molecule of certain nitrate fertilizers, giving it a blue color.

Sodium

Many people might be surprised to learn that Sodium (Na) is a micronutrient. We do not recommend adding any salt to your growing media, because the requisites for Sodium in plants are so small they are almost always fulfilled. What people should be concerned about is the negative consequences of having too much Sodium.

Sodium is a very reactive substance and therefore is most often bonded to another element. These bonded crystalline molecules are called salts. Other elements form salts for similar reasons, yet we are most familiar with table salt: Sodium chloride (NaCl). The kind of Sodium chloride we are concerned about has been traditionally mined from quarries, which were deposited by ancient oceans. Other methods of harvesting include evaporating salty water from the ocean or other sources. Some cultures without access to salt mines and sea water have burned certain plants rich in salts and consume their ashes, since humans require salt in their diets. Evaporative methods are almost always used to produce salt for culinary purposes. Mining methods are used for industrial production used in roads and sidewalks in high quantities, which has contaminated lakes and damages sensitive plants.

In colder climates with snowy icy winters, salt is applied to roads to turn ice into slush by changing the water’s freezing point. This salt can damage lawns, roadside flora, and sensitive ecosystems downstream of the melting snow. Because plants rely on osmosis to intake water, salt contamination can reverse this passive mechanism and cause plants to die of dehydration. Chloride ions in salt can also have damaging effects to the biology of plants.

For similar reasons, salts of fertilizers can also have the same effect on plants. Farmers call this osmotic damage fertilizer burn. Like table salt, these salts can dissolve in water and drain downstream into creeks, rivers, and lakes, causing problems of their own, such as overgrowth of aquatic plants.

Regulation

Governments regulate what inputs can be used in agriculture to protect people and the environment. Governments also regulate how those substances are used and where they come from. Research-informed categories are used to try to understand the effects of these substances on humans (ex: pregnant women, babies, children, adults), animals (ex: pets, farm animals, wild animals, insects), plants (ex: crops, wild populations) and the environment (ex: forests, wetlands, lakes, rivers, air). Regulations manage thousands of inputs.

The words, Bio or organic or natural, can be used to describe how to grow in a minimalistic life-friendly way, to grow without the use of chemicals (artificial chemicals), to grow traditionally, or to grow naturally [85].

Because there are now many substances used in modern agriculture, some natural with very negative consequences (ex: rotanone, poisons fish; nicotine, poisons insects) and some artificial with many benefits (ex: chlorine or alcohol, for sanitation), regulations try to create a system to define these big ideas into organized enforceable realities. Since some of these substances can be mined, and not synthetically produced, some of them are allowed in organic food production systems by regulatory organizations [86][87].

In the USA, the USDA regulates the term ‘Organic’ or similar terms used in any product label, such as food, fertilizers, and other garden amendments. Before someone can use this word in a product or receive a certified USDA Organic label, they must farm for three years with permissible inputs as defined by the USDA and be randomly inspected for compliance. Non-organic food is said to be ‘conventionally grown’. Conventional systems are also regulated by the USDA and FDA but allow a broader range of accepted substances.

Because the list of permissible organic inputs is long, has some exceptions, requires time and money, farmers who grow without inputs or with traditional inputs may coordinate with organizations called CSA’s (Community-supported Agriculture) or other methods of business, but still cannot use the term ‘organic’. Regulatory agencies inspect and try to control this.

Other countries and governmental bodies, like the European Union, have different regulations, and can decide which countries they will accept certain goods from with treaties and agreements. Different countries can also control or safeguard their inhabitants by using different patent systems, and labeling laws.

Some people argue against regulations because it tries to control behavior, its confusing, they see corruption, and the false power it can give business competitors. Organic food can still be affected by food-borne diseases, can still contribute to dietary issues, and can be overly contentious issue that causes people to mistreat each other [88]. People seem to want good on both sides of the argument, yet organic agriculture has been favored by many for its emphasis on applying practices with less negative consequences.

Contaminants

Not all elements are conducive to life [89][90]. Some are naturally there in the soil, and for that reason, some places on Earth are barren or have environments where organisms have to adapt or die. Those that survive by working together or inherit new traits have offspring and their offspring evolve at each generation.

Other sources of detrimental elements come from human activity. Since ancient times, humans have explored how to control materials and create new substances. After the industrial revolution, the productivity improved, yet also did the potential for harm. Today, industries, municipalities, businesses and consumers need to manage their use of chemicals or suffer negative consequences.

Sometimes the scope of protection is limited to the factors involved in the success of their operation and not the needs of people or the environment. For the last 100 years, the world has seen a dramatic rise in pollution, which threatens the Web of Life, which we and our economy are a part of.

To avoid polluting the environment, humans need to identify where the contaminants are coming from. There two categories: point-source pollution and nonpoint-source solution. Point-source pollution occurs when there is an easily identifiable source, like a factory or broken sewage pipe. Nonpoint-source pollution occurs when there are many causes, like the draining of pollutants into drains after it rains.

Lead (Pb)

Lead (Pb) has another curious abbreviation, which comes from the Latin word Plumbum, and was also called Plumbum nigrum, since the Romans couldn’t distinguish Tin (Sn) from Pb, except for its color.

Chronic lead exposure causes neurodegenerative disorders, damage to vital organs, and correlates with gun violence statistics. Therefore, it has become one of the most studied contaminants [91][92][93][94]. It can naturally exist in certain geological formations and spread through mining. It can also exist within cities, since old paints and pipes often used Pb.

Lead testing of soils is one of the main tests offered by university extension labs. In certain cities where Lead exposure is a greater risk, like Milwaukee, Wisconsin, parents are encouraged to test their kids for blood-levels of lead. Some anecdotes say unapproved soil testing in places like Milwaukee can receive criminal charges, presumably because cities wish to obfuscate the severity of their lead pollution, from natural or human sources.

Home gardens near the foundation of homes are one of the most common sources of Pb contamination. Pb enters the tissues of plants consumed as food. For this reason, some people advise test for Pb when planning a garden.

Lead was discovered in the White House gardens and its soil had to be properly discarded and replaced [95]. Such procedures are expensive and might not be available to home owners of houses built before 1970’s. In the USA, the government wants to subsidize and fund the costs of replacing pipes that deliver drinking water [96].

Remediation

Scientists and land stewards wish to understand how they can remove the contaminants from an environment. The best method to avoid this problem is to stop them at their source. Many times, further we are from the source, the harder it is to fix the problem, because of entropy, the universal law which describes how things change over time.

The second best method is to remediate the environment with a solution that causes the least amount of negative consequences. Sometimes scientists use chemicals in order to chemically solve another chemical pollutant issue. These chemicals can have their own consequences and contribute to other problems.

While planting a plant to “soak up” the contaminants might seem like a good idea, it can also have negative consequences if the contaminant is now exposed to pollinators or is not properly disposed. By studying the physiology and ecology of plants, we can better ascertain what role plants have in remediation.

Some issues aren’t caused by dangerous chemicals, but by changes in naturally occurring organic substances in soils because of erosion, drought and disturbances. These can simply resolved if one studies plants, particularly native plants, so to not introduce new consequences, and their characteristics (morphology, physiology, ecology). Once studied, landscapes can be engineered through the successive planting of new species (1. one type species first, 2. another type later once the first type has influenced the soil, etc…).

Conclusion

The organization of the elements in the world is complicated and requires dedicated study. Many have attempted to understand it all. If we were to talk about the origin of an element like Iron, one we have coursing through our bodies, we’d need to go back to the life cycle of stars.

In plant science, a holistic approach could help us focus on the relationship between each element rather than divide it all into a million parts and pieces. Such a holistic approach would help us see plants, not as lego-like structures we can mess with, but a symphony of harmonies. If we can understand how plants function, we can use this information to describe how sustainable cultivation methods work and why describe why some innovations cause harm.

Philosophical approaches to this body of knowledge are just as important as the knowledge itself. How can we know what to do, and when not do it [102]? When is an input helpful, and when is it not? Of course, the answers of to these questions are in the never ending quest of evaluating the evidence of scientific research.

Most importantly, PlantResearchOrg emphasizes cooperation and the Golden Rule. Interpersonal and self-help skills like empathy, sympathy and compassion are necessary to manage these complicated and sensitive topics. What’s done is done. Now we decide the quality of our action forward .

Author: Gustavo Meneses
Published: 2025-01-08
Revised: 2025-01-08

Read more

[I] Clayton, Michael W. “Cross section of a leaf of Nerium oleander showing stomatal crypt”. UWDC. Accessed Dec 7, 2023. https://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/SJLPA2KTSOOC48T

[II] “C3 C4 images.htm”. Jun 19, 2013. Biology 111 Lab. Yvonne Vaillancourt Biology Department. UMass Boston. Accessed Dec 7, 2023. http://www.faculty.umb.edu/yvonne_vaillancourt/Biology/

[III] Lakna. “What is the Difference Between Microbes and Microorganisms”. Apr 30, 2019. Pediaa. Accessed Dec 16, 2023. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-microbes-and-microorganisms/

[IV] Peganum. “Seed sowing, resowing, and pricking out”. Album. Flickr. Accessed July 2, 2024. https://www.flickr.com/photos/peganum/albums/72157663392571465/

[V] Krutul, D. et al. “METALS ACCUMULATION IN SCOTS PINE (PINUS SYLVESTRIS L.) WOOD AND BARK AFFECTED WITH ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION”. Jan 2017. Wood Research, vol 62, no. 3, pp.353-364. Department of Wood Science and Wood Protection. Warsaw University of Life Sciences. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322027112_METALS_ACCUMULATION_IN_SCOTS_PINE_PINUS_SYLVESTRIS_L_WOOD_AND_BARK_AFFECTED_WITH_ENVIRONMENTAL_POLLUTION

[VI] “First direct imaging of small noble gas clusters at room temperature”. Jan 11, 2024. Eureka Alert. Nature Materials. Accessed Feb 03, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41563-023-01780-1

• Thanks to Project Civil Cultural’s news aggregator. Website: https://civilcultural.wordpress.com/ Discord: https://discord.gg/xNeTXB8S

See more

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• Hawaii’s recently formed soils are a good example for outdoor environments where introduced crops can experience nutrient deficiencies.

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• See maps of natural occurrence of Lead (Pb) contamination.

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• Of interest, is the concept of Wu Wei (無為) and its relationship to the quality of action. It is included as a cultural inclusive and philosophical resource, and not as a promotion for a religion.

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[…] Gnangarra. “File:Perth basin soil profile gnangarra-19.jpg”. May 29, 2012. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Feb 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Perth_basin_soil_profile_gnangarra-19.jpg

[…] Stewart, Ailith. “File:Podzol – geograph.org.uk – 218892.jpg”. Jul 20, 2006. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Feb 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Podzol_-_geograph.org.uk_-_218892.jpg

[…] Remarquemo. “File:Podzolization in Podzol soils.png”. May 4, 2018. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Feb 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Podzolization_in_Podzol_soils.png

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[…] Hodnett, Ryan. “File:Peat Moss (Sphagnum sp.) – London, Ontario 2015-04-12 (02).jpg”. Apr 12, 2015. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Jul 2, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peat_Moss_(Sphagnum_sp.)_-_London,_Ontario_2015-04-12_(02).jpg

[…] Ragesoss. “File:Schultz Sphagnum Peat Moss.jpg”. Jul 6, 2008. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Jul 2, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schultz_Sphagnum_Peat_Moss.jpg

[…] Phương Huy. “File:Chậu mầm cây kiểng (xương rồng Việt Nam) năm 2016 (1).JPG”. 2016. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Jul 2, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ch%E1%BA%ADu_m%E1%BA%A7m_c%C3%A2y_ki%E1%BB%83ng_(x%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_r%E1%BB%93ng_Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam)_n%C4%83m_2016_(1).JPG

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[…] Joi Ito. “File:Strawberry greenhouse.jpg”. Feb 16, 2008. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Jul 2, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Strawberry_greenhouse.jpg

[…] Starr, Forest. Starr, Kim. “File:Starr-100623-7801-Ocimum basilicum-potted plants in greenhouse-Pukalani Plant Company Pulehu-Maui (24746810490).jpg”. Jun 23, 2010. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Jul 2, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starr-100623-7801-Ocimum_basilicum-potted_plants_in_greenhouse-Pukalani_Plant_Company_Pulehu-Maui_(24746810490).jpg

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• Ottowa Silica Sand, an industrial by-product from hydraulic mining of St. Peter Sandstone in Illinois.

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[…] Goetzinger, Benjamin. “File:Chile – Humberstone – Salpeter – sodium nitrate.jpg”. Aug 26, 2010. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 8, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chile_-Humberstone–Salpeter-_sodium_nitrate.jpg

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[…] Leidus, Ivar. “File:Bombus rupestris – Trifolium pratense – Keila.jpg”. Jul 9, 2016. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 8, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bombus_rupestris_-_Trifolium_pratense_-_Keila.jpg

[…] Vanek, Steve. “Figure 5.2.3”. Karsten, H. Vanek, S. Zimmerer, K. Gigi, R. Blumler, M. The Nitrogen Cycle and Human Management of Soils. Module 5.2. Food and the Future Environment. The College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. Pennsyvania State Univesity. Accessed Dec 19, 2024. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog3/node/1175

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[…] Betts, Lynn. “File:NRCSIA99213 – Iowa (3121)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg”. Oct 4, 2011. USDA NCRS. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 8, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NRCSIA99213(16876)(NRCS_Photo_Gallery).jpg

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[…] Parker-Burlingham, Jason. “File:Phosphate Mine Panorama.jpg”. Jun 30, 2008. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 5, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phosphate_Mine_Panorama.jpg

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[…] Vanek, Steven. “Figure 5.2.4”. Karsten, H. Vanek, S. Zimmerer, K. Gigi, R. Blumler, M. The Phosphorus Cycle and Human Management of Soils. Module 5.2. Food and the Future Environment. The College of Earth and Mineral Sciences.Pennsylvania State University. Accessed Mar 5, 2024. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog3/node/1176

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[…] Ringwoodit. “File:Glaukonit XPL.jpg”. Mar 1, 2020. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 5, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glaukonit_XPL.jpg

[…] Whalen, Joann.”Figure 7.11″. Whalen, JK. Ziadi, N. Schoenau, JJ. Paré, MC. Burton, DL. Bruulsema, T. No. 7. Soil Nutrient Cycling. Digging Into Canadian Soils. University of Saskatchewan. Accessed Mar 5, 2024. https://openpress.usask.ca/soilscience/chapter/soil-nutrient-cycling/

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• Asbestos is a dangerous mineral which was popular for its ability to be turned into a pulp and then woven into thermal insulating fibers. Because of its properties, it easily falls apart and enters the air as sharp microscopic pieces, where it is inhaled into the lungs and damages the lung, similar to the effects of volcanic ash.

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[…] Konyar, ST. Öztürk, N. Dane, F. “Occurrence, types and distribution of calcium oxalate crystals in leaves and stems of some species of poisonous plants”. Mar 15, 2014. Botanical Studies, vol. 55, no. 32 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/1999-3110-55-32

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• Orkney Islands, Scotland, United Kingdom (UK)

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• Urbanexotic, Ahmedabad, India

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• Cedara College of Agriculture, Hilton, South Africa

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[…] Motahari, Rezvan. “File:Gol Gohar iron ore mine 2019-10-23 12.jpg”. Oct 23, 2019. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gol_Gohar_iron_ore_mine_2019-10-23_12.jpg

[…] Arnoldius. “File:Pelletized iron ore with scale.jpg”. Feb 13, 2010. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pelletized_iron_ore_with_scale.jpg

[…] Motahari, Rezvan. “File:Gol Gohar iron ore mine 2019-10-23 23.jpg”. Oct 23, 2019. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gol_Gohar_iron_ore_mine_2019-10-23_23.jpg

[…] Alchemist-hp. “File:Iron electrolytic and 1cm3 cube.jpg”. Apr 24, 2020. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg

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[…] Vincentz, Frank. “File:Banksia integrifolia 02 ies.jpg”. Jul 27, 2007. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Banksia_integrifolia_02_ies.jpg

[…] Eiku en exil. “File:Chlorose ferrique sur Citrus aurantium.jpg”. Mar 3, 2022. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Mar 28, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chlorose_ferrique_sur_Citrus_aurantium.jpg

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[…] Sauber, Wolfgang. “File:Bolsa Chica – Salzmarschen.jpg”. Apr 9, 2008. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bolsa_Chica_-_Salzmarschen.jpg

[…] de Pedro, Raquel Sánchez. “File:Atriplex portulacoides.JPG”. Jun 12, 2014. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atriplex_portulacoides.JPG

[…] Colsu. “File:Aster maritime (Tripolium pannonicum) dans les prés salés.jpg”. Oct 21, 2017. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aster_maritime_(Tripolium_pannonicum)_dans_les_pr%C3%A9s_sal%C3%A9s.jpg

[…] Beck, Florent. “File:Plantago maritima fruit (03).jpg”. Sept 24, 2012. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plantago_maritima_fruit_(03).jpg

• Saint-Jean-de-Luz, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France

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[…] Covey, Al. “4310922760_85b9c21616_o”. Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT). Flickr. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://www.flickr.com/photos/vadot/4310922760/in/photostream/

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[…] “File:Selo do SisOrg – MAPA.jpg”. Aug 22, 2011. Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento (MAPA). Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Selo_do_SisOrg_-_MAPA.jpg

[…] “File:Canadian Organic Seal.png”. Aug 28, 2017. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Canadian_Organic_Seal.png

[…] “File:Kilimohai Organic.png”. Jan 4, 2014.Kenya Organic Agriculture Network. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kilimohai_Organic.png

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[…] Kurbiko, Andrew J. “File:Organic certification label of Ukraine.svg”. Feb 16, 2015. Ministry of Health Ukraine. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Organic_certification_label_of_Ukraine.svg

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[…] Gallagher, Judy. “File:Green Sweat Bee – Augochlorella species, Mason Neck, Virginia (38251317511).jpg”. Oct 3, 2017. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Green_Sweat_Bee_-_Augochlorella_species,_Mason_Neck,_Virginia_(38251317511).jpg

[…] Nivis, Flocci. “File:20180708 Bombus 04.jpg”. Jul 8, 2018. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20180708_Bombus_04.jpg

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[…] Becks. “File:Two Flies (7080957493).jpg”. Apr 15, 2022. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Apr 4, 2024. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Two_Flies_(7080957493).jpg

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