Thanks to Jabari Caire for inspiration and introduction to African knowledge.
Read this article in Spanish.
Featured image: People created a snowman and snowballs during a snowy day in the country of Lesotho.
Many of the names for plants, places, and people used in this article are exonyms (names given by outsiders), rather than the names used by the indigenous African societies, endonyms.
Red line on equator of Arno Peters projection map, which takes into account the total area in respect to the curvature of surfaces on Earth.
Penarc, Wikimedia Commons [1a]
The continent of Africa is the largest continuous landmass at the equator. For this reason, it is a unique place for plants. Its significant role on the surface of the Earth is less appreciated by the distortions of the popular Mercator map projection [1].
Africa and South America fit together.
Wikimedia Commons [2a].
1513
Wikimedia Commons [3a].
Molten rock oozed from fissures along the Earth’s crust and separated Gondwana. This fissure is still moving at 2.5 centimeters per year [2]. It is the reason why there is a geological and biological relationship between North America, South America, and western Africa.
Kapok tree
“Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.” Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) [4a].
Zambia.
Wikimedia Commons [5a].
Thorns are adapted stems.
Spines are adapted leaves or related to leaves, such as stipules.
Prickles are adapted hair-like epidermal tissues.
Wikimedia Commons [6a].
Fairchild Botanical Garden, Florida, USA.
Wikimedia Commons [7a].
Wikimedia Commons [8a][9a].
The fibers of C. pentandra fruit are used in clothing and other fiber products. [6]
Wikimedia Commons [10a] [11a]
The continent was named after a coastal Mediterranean people, who were conquered and preserved in the name of the Roman general Scipio Africanus. Other commentators say the original Afri tribe still exists and migrated further south. This continent is shrouded in mysteries and erroneous concepts, which hide its true nature [7].
Carob tree
The common name is used to refer to many trees species in the Fabaceae family with similar fruit.
Wikimedia Commons [12a].
Berlin, Germany.
Wikimedia Commons [13a].
Although it appears similar to cauliflory, a phenomena where flowers and fruit form from the epidermal layer of trees and other plants, this tree has epicormic shoots, which bore fruit. Epicormic shoots can be a sign of plant stress.
Wikimedia Commons [14a].
Wikimedia Commons [15a].
Before the arrival of chocolate (fermented, roasted and ground seeds of Theobroma cacao) from the Americas around 1500s, Carob was the most similar product in the Mediterranean.
Wikimedia Commons [16a]
Dragon tree
Wikimedia Commons [17a].
Wikimedia Commons [18a].
Wikimedia Commons [19a].
Wikimedia Commons [20a].
Candelabra Tree
Wikimedia Commons [21a].
Wikimedia Commons [22a].
Wikimedia Commons [23a].
Where and how is Africa delineated? At one point, the continent of Europe connected to Africa through Spain. Are the Canary Islands African? What about island of Madagascar? Or Socotra? The southern Arabian Peninsula shares many plants with eastern Africa, because they belong to the Arabian tectonic plate. Israel and Palestine belong to the African tectonic plate, which pushes against the Arabian plate on the border of the country Jordan. Tectonic plates often delineate floristic communities, because of the evolution of land plants.
Google Earth Pro, 2023.
Wikimedia Commons [24a].
Separations between land masses, such as the Suez Canal, are modern engineered attempts to circumvent the long voyages around the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa for ships destined to Europe and elsewhere [11].
Sycamore fig
Notice how the Nile is excluded from this region. Did human development alter its presence?
Consider the biological, taxonomic or sociopolitical factors involved in the creation of these maps.
Wikimedia Commons [25a].
The specific epithet and common name derives from Greek and ancient Hebrew word, שקמה (shikma).
Ramat Gan, Israel
Wikimedia Commons [26a].
Valley of Sycamores, Eritrea, eastern Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [27a].
near Limpopo River, South Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [28a].
South Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [29a].
Israel.
Wikimedia Commons [30a].
Gambia, western Africa [25a].
Wikimedia Commons [31a].
In actuality, figs are not a fruit, but an enveloping flower receptacle. Each of the “seeds” in the “fruit” are the actual fruit, an achene (dry hard fruit) and location of flowers. The skin of the “fruit” is the receptacle of an extreme U-shaped, almost O-shaped, composite flower.
Wasps burrow into these receptacles and pollinate the tiny flowers inside. Without fig wasps, like many other insect pollinators, we would not have these these trees.
Wikimedia Commons [32a]
Within Africa, there are many different biomes. The stereotypical images of tropical or desertic environments are a very limited view of a diverse continent with a landscape with thousands of years of change.
Sahara
Two red lines show a 2,000 year period on the Gregorian Calendar.
Maisrimer, Wikimedia Commons [33a]
near Olduvai Gorge Museum, Olduvai Gorge, northern Tanzania.
Warby William, Wikimedia Commons [34a]
NASA. Oct 30, 2015.
Wikimedia Commons [35a]
Gaberoun Oasis, southwestern Libya. Nov 2010.
Wikimedia Commons [36a]
While the Sahara Desert is one of the largest in the world, it isn’t the oldest (Namib desert, Africa) nor the driest (Atacama Desert, South America). In fact, the Sahara Desert is relatively new from a geological perspective. Cave paintings by human settlers depict animals, observed today in the Serengeti, a vast grassland region in east Africa.
Oases in north Africa show a glimpse of these habitats. These grassland regions across Africa are extremely important to study, because they represent the source of the first grains consumed by early humans, which are said to have been much more species rich than today, after the artificial selection of the few species our ancestors found best and the limitations of their management.
Grains
Wikimedia Commons [37a].
Namibia.
Wikimedia Commons [38a]
Niger.
Wikimedia Commons [39a]
Wikimedia Commons [40a].
Wikimedia Commons [41a].
Ethiopia.
Wikimedia Commons [42a].
Africa represents a unique place for ethnobotanical research, because the potential timeline for human and plant interaction is greater than anywhere else. It is curious how humans have been able to domesticate and utilize plants in all areas of the planet Earth, when the archeological evidence suggests humanity began as an isolated small population somewhere in eastern Africa. A phytochemical study of plants around eastern Africa may help us better understand human physiology.
The afro-montane
In eastern Africa and other regions, mountains push plants to new extremes but also create verdant niches. The colder atmosphere at the mountain peaks is isolated from the radiated heat from the lower lands with greater surface area. In the mountains, plants benefit from the condensed moisture generated by the evaporation of many lakes and the transpiration of the vast jungles. The misty mountains are perfect for plants that can tolerate the slightly lower temperatures, because it gives them a constant supply of water. Over time, the growth and decay of plants further helps develop the soil and microbial environments, which enrich the soil with available nutrients.
Lhuillier-Chaigneau, 2007 [43a].
Wikimedia Commons [44a].
Below freezing of water (<0°C or <32°F), plants need to inherit traits to allow their tissues to survive the damage from constant exposure.
In the polar regions of the world, Pinopsida, the division of Conifers (Pines, spruces, firs, yews, etc…) within the clade of cone-bearing plants Gymnospermae, are able to survive these type of conditions. Today, Pinopsida exists in small populations in the Atlas Mountains of north Africa near the country of Morocco. Fossils in the Sahara Desert suggest the distribution of Pinopsida in Africa was once much more widespread across the north [17].
The snowy afro-montane biomes of central and southern portions of Africa saw different evolutionary adaptations to cold.
Wikimedia Commons [45a].
At the tops of these mountains and volcanoes, thresholds occur which prevent plant life from thriving. At the edge of these sterile environments, snow is a common occurrence.
Near border between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.
Flickr [46a].
The snow and rain in the mountainous regions of east Africa constitute the source of water for the entire Nile River valley flora [19]. Near the Nile River the soils are saturated with water and rich in organic material from periodic flooding and silt deposition from the Nile River and accumulation of decayed plant and animal matter.
Nile River
Google Earth.
North
As the Saharan grasslands dried and the hydrological cycle became disrupted by the lack of evapotranspirating plants, the few available water sources for plants became small lakes and the Nile River. Underground water sources were inaccessible to plants. The silt and clay of the thin soil horizon blew away, and mostly the heavy sand was left to form dunes. Animals and humans migrated to the nearest source of water.
~3500BC,
found near Naqada, Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [47a]
Each red line (left is truncated) indicates a period of approximately 2,000 years in the Gregorian Calendar.
Wikimedia Commons [48a].
[20][21][22].
This dramatic climate change caused a change in plant distributions. It also changed human social interactions dramatically, which resulted in the formation of complex social systems and activities in the highly restrictive geography. These complex social systems gave rise to the cultivation of plants. Unlike the Mesopotamians, who are famed for their cultivation of grains we associate with agronomy, the ancient Egyptian glyphs show they were gardeners and cultivators of many different horticultural crops [23].
1425-1353BC,
found near Deir el-Medina, Theban Necropolis, Thebes, Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [49a].
While our modern imagination places the Egyptians in the Mediterranean, their culture sprung from the highlands of the Nile in the south, what we consider Africa. The word Egypt is a Greek-loanword, the name of a port city. Much of what we know about the Egyptians is through the lens of Greek culture, who also used the word ‘Ethiopia’ in a broader sense. These societal perspectives influence how we study the land and its plants, since they impose artificial direction but also explain how humans interacted, thus how plants were imported and exported.
near Qina, Egypt.
Daniel Scörföly, Feb 10, 2007.
Wikimedia Commons [50a].
N. lotus is distributed across Africa, and thought to have a rare variety in thermal springs of Romania, Europe, separated during the Ice Age [24].
Its leaves float on the surface of the water, because of unique cellular structures. The flowers and leaves are hydrophobic, because of epidermal cellular structures. These structures have been studied by botanists and replicated to create surface technologies for water protection [25].
Despite its name, it is distantly related to North American waterlilies and lotus from eastern Asia [26].
Yet, all of these aquatic flowering plants have been studied as models for the evolution of flowers in Angiosperms, together with Magnolia trees, since they display a simpler geometry and change between leaf, tepal, petal, stamen and pistil structures [27].
GPS tagged in Aruwimi River, tributary of Congo River,
northern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
Flickr [51a].
Humans in this region became exceedingly productive, and began to transform the customs of their predecessors, upstream of the Nile, into a dystopic way of life. Consider how many trees it took to construct the pyramids of Giza.
As temples were constructed, the artificial representations of plant life exceeded those of the untamed wilderness. Archetypes of nature were transformed from the objects of language into religion through a process which mystified and abstracted natural observation into a ritual-oriented and exploitable social system.
Allegories, which transformed into complex religious systems, are shown.
Although this document is called the Book of the Dead, its actual name is Book of the Coming Forth by Day and summarizes the cosmic worldview of the Egyptians and the fate of the soul after death: resurrection.
Osiris pictured with green skin could represent the natural world. After being killed, dismembered and spread across the land by his brother Set, he was recollected and embalmed for resurrection by his wife Isis, except for his genitals. This could be interpreted as the survival of one’s creations after their death and a greater message about conflict, chaos and order in nature.
1.275 BC. Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [52a].
Paper
Aug 8, 2010.
Kafue River, Zambia.
Hans Hillewaert. Wikimedia Commons [53a].
An old adage goes:
Sedges have edges,
rushes are round,
and grasses have nodes from the top to the ground.
Botanical Garden of Halle, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg (MLU), Halle (Saale), Germany. Jul 5, 2022.
Wikimedia Commons [54a].
~1,600BC.
Thebes, Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [55a].
~200BC.
probably in Alexandria, Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [56a].
~700-800AD.
Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [57a].
Papyrus plants weren’t the only sources of plant fiber for ancient Egyptians. One of the many other fiber sources was palm fiber.
Fiber
Palm trees (Arecaceae) are monocot plants, similar to grasses and unlike most trees. Instead of having tree rings from widening of the cambial layer and the deposition of xylem cells within the trunk, they have vascular bundles dispersed throughout the trunk. [29][30][31]
See an example of palm tree vascular bundles here.
Old Kingdom (~2400BC), Ancient Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [58a].
Arecaceae fossils in sandstone deposition, Colorado, USA.
Wikimedia Commons [59a].
Unlike other trees on the continent, palm trees are monocots, which means they sprout and have vascular bundles like grasses and lilies. Some palm trees are grown as fruit trees, either in cultivation or found in the wild.
Date Palms
light blue near upper border by Mediterrenean represents small region of separate species, Phoenix theophrasti.
Right: Seeds found in archeological sites were used to grow and study the genetic material of ancient date palms.
Gros-Balthazard, M. et al. [60a].
Left: Male inflorescences.
Right: Female inflorescences.
Wikimedia Commons [61a][62a].
The fruits are left to dry and cure in the sun. There are many different cultivars of P. dactylifera, different colors, different tastes and unique methods of curing.
Date culture is a complex and rich trade in northern Africa and western Asia.
Wikimedia Commons [63a][64a][65a][66a].
Right: P. dactylifera seedlings grown in Wisconsin by horticulturalist, Gus Greiling.
Theban Necropolis, near Qurna, Egypt.
Right: Fruiting mature P. dactylifera specimen growing in urban environment in northern range. Trunk is composed of leaf bases of senesced fronds.
Jerusalem, Israel.
Wikimedia Commons [67a][68a].
Hypostyle columns resemble trunks of palm trees. These columns have tops resembling the umbel of C. papyrus.
built ~1200BC,
Karnak temple, Luxor ﴾الأقصر ﴿,
Thebes or Waset, Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [69a].
Kom Ombo Temple,
built in Ptolomaic Dynasty ( ~180-47BC ),
north of Aswan, Egypt.
Wikimedia Commons [70a].
Built ~300BC,
Stadium of Messene ruins,
Pelopennese, Greece.
Wikimedia Commons [71a].
~150 AD.
Temple of Artemis at Gerasa,
Jerash, Jordan.
Wikimedia Commons [72a].
~1130 AD until 1806 AD.
This mantel with a date palm, lions, and camels was given to the German-speaking royalty of Holy Roman Empire, which illustrates the far-reaching influence of these representations of nature, popularized in northern Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [73a].
Natural distribution of Coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, (land near coasts) and approximate native range near Indonesia (right).
Wikimedia Commons [74a][75a].
C. nucifera fruit will float in seawater and survive long voyages.
Nigeria, west Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [76a].
Central
Bao Bab
Many species of Adonsonia are found on the Island of Madigascar. The tree is often associated with this isolated and exotic region. The African Baobab tree can be found across equatorial Africa.
Kenya, eastern Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [77a].
Soil
Wikimedia Commons [78a].
Ghana, western Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [79a].
The soils appear red near the equator, since its soils have been weathered longer. Iron, a common element on Earth, oxidizes and turns the clayey soils red. For this reason, once disturbed these clayey soils become bone dry and hard. Many have assumed rain forests to have productive soils useful for agriculture, yet they rely on the constant supply of organic matter from the forest debris. The trees in the forest are so dense and nutrient hungry, the lower layers of the soil are often depleted. Without the forest and its animals, its shade, organic matter, and evapotranspiration, these soils are not fertile. They are not the silty soils of the breadbaskets of the world, inches thick, created from silt blown by glacial outwash and millions of years of plant and animal debris.
West
Bao Bab
In the 1300’s Mali Empire’s royalty practiced Islam.
One of them, Mansa Musa, has been called the richest person of all history after he donated his wealth to the poor on his religious pilgrimage to the city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula [32].
Mar 5, 2009. Kani Bonzon, Mali.
Wikimedia Commons [80a].
West Africa has strongly influenced our perception of Africa, since it was the region of major international contact during the Age of Exploration.
A ceremonial opening the canopy of the Boheouzoun Forest, designated the birthplace of Voodoo.
Voodoo is a complex religious practice common in the descendants of West Africans, who were transported to the Americas as slaves. Hence, these practices have been depicted in movies and literature in extravagant and disrespectful ways, from where we derive the term ‘zombie’.
Jan, 2018. Ouidah, Benin.
Wikimedia Commons [81a].
The predecessors of the Kingdom of Kongo dominated the coastal regions through their development of iron weapons. These techniques relied on smelting iron using charcoal and ore found in the environment. Charcoal would’ve been produced from burned plant material.
Located in Mbanza Kongo,
Kingdom of Kongo’s capital city, now a small city in northern Angola [37].
Sylmpedia [82a].
In the Age of Exploration, the Portuguese, the coastal inhabitants of the Port of Cali in Hispania, would travel along the Atlantic in search of trade and conquest.
The royalty of the Kingdom of Kongo visited Europe, assimilated to the ways of the Portuguese to gain authority, and made Catholicism their official religion [38][39][40][41][42]. Yet, the slave trade enabled by the Kingdom of Kongo continued to grow beyond their expectations and began to exploit Kongo people and royalty. Soon, the entire region became exploited and humans were enslaved in mass and treated as livestock. As noted by Jabari Caire, these slaves were effectively prisoners of war. These wars were conducted by the foreign merchants and their local allies against vulnerable populations [21].
Some warm season turfgrasses used in the USA are from grass species in Africa [43].
Uncyclomedia Commons [83a].
Bao Bab
Luanda Province, Angola.
Wikimedia Commons [84a].
Cuisine
Despite the wars and skirmishes in western Africa to capture humans, the captured people managed to preserve their previous life by continuing to cultivate the plants of their homeland. Under the stress and scarcity, they fashioned a sustaining cuisine, which dominated the cultures of their captors and spread around the world [44].
Abelmoschus esculentus or Okra, its common name from the Igbo language.
This crop was introduced to the Americas, is popular in southern USA cuisine, and now cultivated around the world.
near Manila, Philippines, south east Asia.
Wikimedia Commons [85a].
Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Wikimedia Commons [86a].
Wikimedia Commons [87a].
It is not in the same genus as the common pea (recently was Pisum sativum, now Lathyrus oleraceus), despite the similar common name [45].
Wikimedia Commons [88a].
V. unguiculata and all other peas and beans, belong to the bean or pea family, Fabaceae.
Flowers in Fabaceae family are organized into fused and unfused parts:
banner (top), wings (left, right), and keel (middle, often fused).
near Kadisi River, north of Mbombela, South Africa.
Wikimedia Commons [89a].
Large-scale cultivation incentivized growers to exploit human workers around the infra-structurally developed world. Instead of resolving work condition issues, humans were kidnapped and sold into slavery to replace the workers, who were historically indentured under economic or feudal system. Agriculture became linked to slavery. Because of the unequal relations between societies with either a maritime or terrestrial domain and the large-scale cultivation of warm temperature crops, western Africa became the source of many slaves used primarily for agricultural work in the Americas, but also other skilled trades.
In the United States, this population supported the cultivation of Cotton (Gossypium spp.). In the United States, people were regarded as livestock and condemned to discriminatory racial system, which caused people to be outwardly identifiable as belonging to the enslaved group. Although the US imported less slaves than Brazil or México and Perú, the slave population grew through inhumane acts. Wars were fought to preserve the tyrannical order, justified by the manipulation of science to show the differences and not the similarities between people.
Slavery and any socially divisive agricultural practice, which corrupts our place as observers and partakers in nature, does not encourage a positive functional relationship with plants. Although these events seem unrelated to botanical research, they are strongly connected and influence our perception of the world today.
Woodcraft
The wood is so dense it has been sought after by carpenters around the world, and has affected the plant specie’s populations.
Wikimedia Commons [90a].
The game above is Ayo, a variant of Mancala played by the Yoruba people across Nigeria, Benin and Togo.
Wikimedia Commons [91a].
Mali.
Wikimedia Commons [92a].
Conclusion
Africa’s flora is interconnected, despite the continent’s immensity. Our imagination divides Africa into discrete regions, yet genera and species spread across the continent. Historical events have also changed how we perceive the periphery of the continent, such as northern Africa, Israel, southern Arabia, and all its islands. The continent is extremely important to humanity, and plants.
The story of ancient Egypt informs our worldview by acknowledging the impact of climate change on the emergence of one of the most complex and possibly destructive early societies, which laid a foundation for what we call western civilization [47][48][49][50]. The rise of Egypt created the conditions for a clash against the world through a cycle of over-exploitation, urbanization, extractive trade, education and assimilation, war and enslavement. The themes of this saga are: How the landscape affects us, how our response changes the landscape, and how we deal with the consequences.
The flora of Africa is connected to other continents through primordial distributions of the ancestors of plants across tectonic configurations, archaic natural distributions by biotic and abiotic factors, prehistoric distributions by humans, and modern introductions. Climate of Africa is often depicted as tropical, yet it harbors many climactic zones and geographical features, which shelter refugia.
Author: Gustavo Meneses
Published: 2024-01-26
Revised: 2024-10-24
Read More
Scratchinghead. “File:Egypt-Map-ancient.svg”. Feb 7, 2022. Wikimedia Commons. Accessed Dec 4, 2023. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egypt-Map-ancient.svg
Gómez, Rafael. “Baobabs arbol de Mali 01”. Flickr. Accessed Nov 28, 2023. https://www.flickr.com/photos/rafaelgomez/4492854463/in/album-72157633052053687/
“Angola: Kissama NP – Flora & Landscapes”. Travel2Unlimited. Accessed Nov 28, 2023. https://travel2unlimited.com/angola-kissama-np-flora-landscapes/
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[2] “Fast Fact #1″.”Plate Tectonics”. National Geographic. Accessed Dec 12, 2023. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics-video/
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[5] Gentry, Alwyn H. “Diversity and Floristic Composition of Lowland Tropical Forest in Africa and South America”. 1993. Chapter 17. Biological relationships between Africa and South America. Yale University Press. pp.500-546. Archive.org. Accessed Dec 1, 2023. https://archive.org/embed/biologicalrelati0000unse
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[7] Mwanza, Kevin. “Fact Check: The Continent Of Africa Was Named After A Roman General”. The Moguldom Nation. Accessed Nov 27, 2023. https://moguldom.com/368598/fact-check-the-continent-of-africa-was-named-after-a-roman-general/
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[10] Deuteronomy 29:1. Metsudah Publications, 2009. Sefaria. Accessed Nov 27, 2023. https://www.sefaria.org/Deuteronomy.29.1?ven=Metsudah_Chumash,_Metsudah_Publications,_2009&lang=bi&lookup=%D7%9C%D6%B0%D7%A4%D6%B7%D7%A8%D6%B0%D7%A2%D6%B9%D6%A5%D7%94&with=Lexicon&lang2=en
- Pharoah meant ‘great house’, commonly used to refer to king of ancient Egypt.
[11] Cooper, John P. “Egypt’s Nile-Red Sea Canals: Chronology, Location, Seasonality and Function”. Connected Hinterlands. Accessed Nov 27, 2023. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Cooper-23/publication/41152508_Egypt’s_Nile-Red_Sea_canals_chronology_location_seasonality_and_function/links/57e82c5108aed7fe466bd10e/Egypts-Nile-Red-Sea-canals-chronology-location-seasonality-and-function.pdf
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[19] Eggermont, H. Van Damme, K. Russell, JM. “Rwenzori Mountains (Mountains of the Moon): Headwaters of the White Nile”. Jan 2009. The Nile, pp.243-261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9726-3_13
[20] Transatlantic Productions. “BABA HERU Understanding Religion and where it comes from”. YouTube. Accessed Nov 28, 2023. https://youtu.be/xFrLdmR4esA?feature=shared
- Plant Research Organization (PRO) does not support all statements made by Baba Heru nor Chester Higgins, particularly those which are of an anti-Jewish or racist nature. The inclusion of these works and persons are to give credit to the introduction of many of the underlying concepts behind this article.
- See Chester Higgins’ book, Sacred Nile https://www.chesterhiggins.com/content.html?page=9
[21] manwize-of-Kemet. “Real Kemetic Knowledge & History”. YouTube. Accessed Nov 28, 2023. https://youtu.be/HjqYJFIjsB8?feature=shared
- Other commentators and scholars who influenced the direction of this work: Dr. Ishakamusa Barashango, Ashra Kwesi, Jabari Caire, Haramanuba Thau Thau, and Abba Ayalew Amlak. (PRO does not support all statements by these people.)
[22] Hilliard, Asa, III. Middleton, Listervelt. “The Master Keys to Ancient Kemet (Egypt)”. Cyber Coach. YouTube. Accessed Dec 4, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xkjsq4u-LY
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- See ‘Europa’s Divine Greek God Ancestry’.
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- Related content: author’s personal Mastodon post compares Masaii tribe talking sticks, African walking sticks, and wooden masks to ancient Egyptian symbolism. Related posts share conjecture about the significance of Egypt to European and Mediterranean culture. https://mastodon.social/@gmeneses94/111535405735473825
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[50] MercifulServant. “THE QURAN UNLOCKS SECRETS OF ANCIENT EGYPT”. Dec 29, 2020. YouTube. Accessed Dec 6, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BtpzK9qGPo
- PRO does not endorse any religion. Please discern insights from evangelization and dogma.
Images
Featured image: Di.Malealea,”Malealea Lodge, Lesotho”. Flickr. Accessed Nov 23, 2023. https://flic.kr/p/cfXqe7
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PRO - Plant Research Organization 
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